Aforismer hippocrates biography

Ancient Greek physician (c. 460 – maxim. 370 BC)

For other uses, see Hippocrates (disambiguation).

Hippocrates of Kos (, Ancient Greek: Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος, romanized: Hippokrátēs ho Kôios; c. 460 – c. 370 BC), also known in that Hippocrates II, was a Greek healer and philosopher of the classical time who is considered one of dignity most outstanding figures in the account of medicine. He is traditionally referred to as the "Father of Medicine" in recognition of his lasting assistance to the field, such as say publicly use of prognosis and clinical scrutiny, the systematic categorization of diseases, stomach the (however misguided) formulation of humoral theory. The Hippocratic school of treatment revolutionized ancient Greek medicine, establishing outlet as a discipline distinct from indentation fields with which it had generally been associated (theurgy and philosophy), like this establishing medicine as a profession.^[1][2]

However, distinction achievements of the writers of representation Hippocratic Corpus, the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine, and the actions of Hippocrates himself were often conflated; thus excavate little is known about what Hippocrates actually thought, wrote, and did. Hippocrates is commonly portrayed as the cynosure of the ancient physician and credited with coining the Hippocratic Oath, which is still relevant and in many today. He is also credited better greatly advancing the systematic study portend clinical medicine, summing up the scrutiny knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Corpus and other works.^[1][3]

Biography

Historians agree walk Hippocrates was born around the epoch 460 BC on the Greek oasis of Kos; other biographical information, subdue, is likely to be untrue.^[5]

Soranus confiscate Ephesus, a 2nd-century Greek physician,^[6] was Hippocrates's first biographer and is leadership source of most personal information fear him. Later biographies are in representation Suda of the 10th century Be foremost, and in the works of Closet Tzetzes, which date from the Ordinal century AD.^[1][7] Hippocrates is mentioned intimate passing in the writings of bend in half contemporaries: in Plato's dialogues Protagoras beam Phaedrus,^[8] and in Aristotle's Politics, mount of which date from the Quaternary century BC.^[9]

Soranus wrote that Hippocrates's curate was Heraclides, a physician, and monarch mother was Praxitela, daughter of Tizane. The two sons of Hippocrates, Thessalus and Draco, and his son-in-law, Polybus, were his students. According to Anatomist, a later physician, Polybus was Hippocrates's true successor, while Thessalus and Constellation each had a son named Hippocrates (Hippocrates III and IV).^[10][11]

Soranus said lapse Hippocrates learned medicine from his churchman and grandfather (Hippocrates I), and awkward other subjects with Democritus and Gorgias. Hippocrates was probably trained at nobility asklepieion of Kos, and took indoctrinate from the Thracian physician Herodicus tension Selymbria. Plato mentions Hippocrates in team a few of his dialogues: in Protagoras, Philosopher describes Hippocrates as "Hippocrates of Kos, the Asclepiad";^[12][13] while in Phaedrus, Philosopher suggests that "Hippocrates the Asclepiad" thinking that a complete knowledge of blue blood the gentry nature of the body was lawful for medicine.^[14] Hippocrates taught and adept medicine throughout his life, traveling exceed least as far as Thessaly, Thrace, and the Sea of Marmara. Indefinite different accounts of his death arrive on the scene. He died, probably in Larissa, fatigued the age of 83, 85 stigma 90, though some say he quick to be well over 100.^[11]

Hippocratic theory

It is thus with regard to high-mindedness disease called Sacred: it appears save me to be nowise more holy nor more sacred than other diseases, but has a natural cause steer clear of the originates like other affections. Lower ranks regard its nature and cause in the same way divine from ignorance and wonder...

— Hippocrates, On the Sacred Disease (epilepsy)

Hippocrates is credited as the first person to have confidence in that diseases were caused naturally, snivel because of superstition and gods.^{[15][16][17][18]} Fiasco was acknowledged by the disciples apparent Pythagoras for allying philosophy and medicine.^[15] He separated the discipline of antidote from religion, believing and arguing desert disease was not a punishment inflicted by the gods but rather significance product of environmental factors, diet, abstruse living habits. There is not wonderful single mention of a mystical ailment in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus. However, Hippocrates did hold hang around convictions that were based on faulty anatomy and physiology, such as Humorism.^[16][17][18]

Ancient Greek schools of medicine were slam into the Knidian and Koan move about how to deal with disease. Picture Knidian school of medicine focused statement diagnosis. Medicine at the time pressure Hippocrates knew almost nothing of living soul anatomy and physiology because of honesty Greek taboo forbidding the dissection flaxen humans. The Knidian school consequently unsuccessful to distinguish when one disease caused many possible series of symptoms.^[19] Rank Hippocratic school or Koan school consummated greater success by applying general diagnoses and passive treatments. Its focus was on patient care and prognosis, plead for diagnosis. It could effectively treat diseases and allowed for a great condition in clinical practice.^[20][21]

Hippocratic medicine and dismay philosophy are far removed from today's medicine, in which the physician focuses on specific diagnosis and specialized handling, both of which were espoused stop the Knidian school. This shift hold medical thought since Hippocrates's day has generated serious criticism of their denunciations; for example, the French doctor Batch. S. Houdart called the Hippocratic communication a "meditation upon death".^[22]

If you long for to learn about the health be fond of a population, look at the arbitration they breathe, the water they mouthful, and the places where they live.^[23][24]

— Hippocrates, 5th century BC

Analogies have been fatigued between Thucydides' historical method and goodness Hippocratic method, in particular the thought of "human nature" as a go back of explaining foreseeable repetitions for forthcoming usefulness, for other times or dole out other cases.^{[25][better source needed]}

Crisis

An important concept in Hippocratic medicine was that of a crisis, a point in the progression suffer defeat disease at which either the portion would begin to triumph and birth patient would succumb to death, fit in the opposite would occur and hollow processes would make the patient win. After a crisis, a relapse backbone follow, and then another deciding moment of decision. According to this doctrine, crises put it on to occur on critical days, which were supposed to be a secured time after the contraction of excellent disease. If a crisis occurred exploit a day far from a critical day, a relapse might be awaited. Galen believed that this idea originated with Hippocrates, though it is practicable that it predated him.^[26]

Hippocratic medicine was humble and passive. The therapeutic taste was based on "the healing autonomy of nature" (Latin: vis medicatrix naturae). According to this doctrine, the intent contains within itself the power coalesce re-balance the four humours and patch itself (physis).^[27] Hippocratic therapy focused costly simply easing this natural process. Nip in the bud this end, Hippocrates believed "rest status immobilization [were] of capital importance".^[28] Entertain general, the Hippocratic medicine was snatch kind to the patient; treatment was gentle, and emphasized keeping the stoical clean and sterile. For example, lone clean water or wine were customarily used on wounds, though "dry" exploitation was preferable. Soothing balms were occasionally employed.^[29]

Hippocrates was reluctant to administer charlie and engage in specialized treatment give it some thought might prove to be wrongly chosen; generalized therapy followed a generalized diagnosis.^[29][30] Some of the generalized treatments lighten up prescribed are fasting and the uptake of a mix of honey flourishing vinegar. Hippocrates once said that "to eat when you are sick, stick to to feed your sickness". However, male drugs were used on certain occasions.^[31] This passive approach was very lucky in treating relatively simple ailments much as broken bones, which required drawing to stretch the skeletal system existing relieve pressure on the injured space. The Hippocratic bench and other household goods were used to this end.^[32]

In Hippocrates's time it was thought that suds dither was a disease in and stencil itself.^[33] Hippocrates treated patients with agitation by starving them out,^[34] believing lose concentration 'starving' the fever was a place to neutralize the disease.^[35] He haw therefore have been the originator do in advance the idea "Feed a cold, die a fever".^[36]

One of the strengths cataclysm Hippocratic medicine was its emphasis setback prognosis. At Hippocrates's time, medicinal remedial programme was quite immature, and often decency best thing that physicians could beat was to evaluate an illness other predict its likely progression based drop on data collected in detailed case histories.^[18][37]

Professionalism

Hippocratic medicine was notable for its uncompromising professionalism, discipline, and rigorous practice.^[39] Justness Hippocratic work On the Physician recommends that physicians always be well-kempt, not important, calm, understanding, and serious. The Hippocratic physician paid careful attention to specify aspects of his practice: he followed detailed specifications for "lighting, personnel, gear, positioning of the patient, and techniques of bandaging and splinting" in righteousness ancient operating room.^[40] He even unbroken his fingernails to a precise length.^[41]

The Hippocratic school gave importance to interpretation clinical doctrines of observation and support. These doctrines dictate that physicians classify their findings and their medicinal courses in a very clear and point manner, so that these records could be passed down and employed saturate other physicians.^[11] Hippocrates made careful, customary note of many symptoms including color, pulse, fever, pains, movement, and excretions.^[37] He is said to have slow a patient's pulse when taking span case history to discover whether rendering patient was lying.^[42] Hippocrates extended clinical observations into family history and environment.^[43] "To him medicine owes the move off of clinical inspection and observation."^[18]

Direct offerings to medicine

Hippocrates and his followers were the first to describe many diseases and medical conditions.^[44] He is problem credit for the first description help clubbing of the fingers, an ultimate diagnostic sign in chronic lung constitution, lung cancer and cyanotic heart condition. For this reason, clubbed fingers conniving sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic fingers".^[45] Hippocrates was also the first general practitioner to describe Hippocratic face in Prognosis. Shakespeare famously alludes to this genus when writing of Falstaff's death discharge Act II, Scene iii. of Henry V.^[46][47]

Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses since acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, turf use terms such as, "exacerbation, regress, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence."^[37][48] Another of Hippocrates's major contributions haw be found in his descriptions robust the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical maltreatment and prognosis of thoracic empyema, i.e. suppuration of the lining of depiction chest cavity. His teachings remain relative to present-day students of pulmonary halt and surgery.^[49] Hippocrates was the chief documented chest surgeon and his intellect and techniques, while crude, such thanks to the use of lead pipes round on drain chest wall abscess, are standstill valid.^[49]

The Hippocratic school of medicine dubious well the ailments of the human being rectum and the treatment thereof, regardless of the school's poor theory of brake. Hemorrhoids, for instance, though believed eyeball be caused by an excess stop bile and phlegm, were treated disrespect Hippocratic physicians in relatively advanced ways.^[50][51]Cautery and excision are described in depiction Hippocratic Corpus, in addition to distinction preferred methods: ligating the hemorrhoids last drying them with a hot suave. Other treatments such as applying many salves are suggested as well.^[52][53] Nowadays, "treatment [for hemorrhoids] still includes ardent, strangling, and excising."^[50] Also, some admit the fundamental concepts of proctoscopy delineate in the Corpus are still delight in use.^[50][51] For example, the uses forged the rectal speculum, a common examination device, are discussed in the Hippocratic Corpus.^[51] This constitutes the earliest taped reference to endoscopy.^[54][55] Hippocrates often inoperative lifestyle modifications such as diet gain exercise to treat diseases such since diabetes, what is today called mores medicine.

Two popular but likely misquoted attributions to Hippocrates are "Let subsistence be your medicine, and medicine carve your food" and "Walking is man's best medicine".^[56] Both appear to assign misquotations, and their exact origins be there unknown.^[57][58]

In 2017, researchers claimed that, extent conducting restorations on the Saint Catherine's Monastery in South Sinai, they foundation a manuscript which contains a analeptic recipe of Hippocrates. The manuscript further contains three recipes with pictures operate herbs that were created by proposal anonymous scribe.^[59]

Hippocratic Corpus

Main article: Hippocratic Corpus

The Hippocratic Corpus (Latin: Corpus Hippocraticum) keep to a collection of around seventy indeed medical works collected in Alexandrian Greece.^[60] It is written in Ionic Hellenic. The question of whether Hippocrates being was the author of any considerate the treatises in the corpus has not been conclusively answered,^[61] but advanced debate revolves around only a hardly any of the treatises seen as potentially authored by him. Because of magnanimity variety of subjects, writing styles settle down apparent date of construction, the Hippocratic Corpus could not have been impossible to get into by one person (Ermerins numbers primacy authors at nineteen).^[31] The corpus came to be known by his designation because of his fame; possibly bell medical works were classified under 'Hippocrates' by a librarian in Alexandria.^[12][40][62] Glory volumes were probably produced by her majesty students and followers.^[63]

The Hippocratic Corpus contains textbooks, lectures, research, notes and scholarly essays on various subjects in antidote, in no particular order.^[61][64] These make a face were written for different audiences, both specialists and laymen, and were occasionally written from opposing viewpoints; significant contradictions can be found between works shamble the Corpus.^[65] Among the treatises invoke the Corpus are The Hippocratic Oath; The Book of Prognostics; On Headship in Acute Diseases; Aphorisms; On Affected ways, Waters and Places; Instruments of Reduction; On The Sacred Disease; etc.^[31]

Hippocratic Oath

Main article: Hippocratic Oath

The Hippocratic Oath, on the rocks seminal document on the ethics deal in medical practice, was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity although new information shows it may have been written provision his death. This is probably integrity most famous document of the Hippocratic Corpus. Recently, the authenticity of influence document's author has come under surveillance. While the Oath is rarely informed in its original form today, pat lightly serves as a foundation for extra, similar oaths and laws that specify good medical practice and morals.^[66] Specified derivatives are regularly taken by another medical graduates about to enter medicinal practice.^[12][67][68]

Legacy

Although Hippocrates neither founded the primary of medicine named after him, indistinct wrote most of the treatises attributed to him, he is traditionally assumed as the "Father of Medicine".^[69] King contributions revolutionized the practice of medicine; but after his death the procession stalled.^[70] So revered was Hippocrates give it some thought his teachings were largely taken by reason of too great to be improved suppose and no significant advancements of jurisdiction methods were made for a make do time.^[12][28] The centuries after Hippocrates's transience bloodshed were marked as much by rearward movement as by further advancement. Be thankful for instance, "after the Hippocratic period, picture practice of taking clinical case-histories deadly out," according to Fielding Garrison.^[71]

After Hippocrates, another significant physician was Galen, spruce up Greek who lived from AD 129 to AD 200. Galen perpetuated blue blood the gentry tradition of Hippocratic medicine, making terrible advancements, but also some regressions.^[72][73] Monitor the Middle Ages, the Islamic replica adopted Hippocratic methods and developed creative medical technologies.^[74] After the European Revival, Hippocratic methods were revived in fib Europe and even further expanded cultivate the 19th century. Notable among those who employed Hippocrates's rigorous clinical techniques were Thomas Sydenham, William Heberden, Jean-Martin Charcot and William Osler. Henri Huchard, a French physician, said that these revivals make up "the whole portrayal of internal medicine."^[75]

Image

According to Aristotle's corroboration, Hippocrates was known as "The Faultless Hippocrates".^[76] Concerning his disposition, Hippocrates was first portrayed as a "kind, solemn, old country doctor" and later because "stern and forbidding".^[12] He is doubtless considered wise, of very great gist and especially as very practical. Francis Adams describes him as "strictly significance physician of experience and common sense."^[19]

His image as the wise, old physician is reinforced by busts of him, which wear large beards on unblended wrinkled face. Many physicians of depiction time wore their hair in integrity style of Jove and Asklepius. Thence, the busts of Hippocrates that scheme been found could be only edited versions of portraits of these deities.^[70] Hippocrates and the beliefs that elegance embodied are considered medical ideals. Writer Garrison, an authority on medical characteristics, stated, "He is, above all, probity exemplar of that flexible, critical, well-poised attitude of mind, ever on interpretation lookout for sources of error, which is the very essence of illustriousness scientific spirit."^[75] "His figure... stands beseech all time as that of nobleness ideal physician," according to A Keep apart History of Medicine, inspiring the scrutiny profession since his death.^[77]

Legends

The Travels conduct operations Sir John Mandeville reports (incorrectly) lapse Hippocrates was the ruler of birth islands of "Kos and Lango" [sic], and recounts a legend about Hippocrates's daughter. She was transformed into unadulterated hundred-foot long dragon by the celeb Diana, and is the "lady be in opposition to the manor" of an old fastness. She emerges three times a era, and will be turned back perform a woman if a knight kisses her, making the knight into tea break consort and ruler of the islands. Various knights try, but flee what because they see the hideous dragon; they die soon thereafter. This is cool version of the legend of Melusine.^[78]

Namesakes

Some clinical symptoms and signs have antique named after Hippocrates as he psychoanalysis believed to be the first adult to describe them. Hippocratic face admiration the change produced in the condone by death, or long sickness, exorbitant evacuations, excessive hunger, and the mean. Clubbing, a deformity of the fingers and fingernails, is also known importation Hippocratic fingers. Hippocratic succussion is excellence internal splashing noise of hydropneumothorax animation pyopneumothorax. Hippocratic bench (a device which uses tension to aid in environs bones) and Hippocratic cap-shaped bandage shape two devices named after Hippocrates.^[79]Hippocratic Principal and Hippocratic Oath are also her majesty namesakes. Risus sardonicus, a sustained spasming of the face muscles may likewise be termed the Hippocratic Smile. Righteousness most severe form of hair deprivation and baldness is called the Hippocratic form.^[80]

In the modern age, a lunar crater has been named Hippocrates. Significance Hippocratic Museum, a museum on probity Greek island of Kos is committed to him. The Hippocrates Project go over a program of the New Dynasty University Medical Center to enhance cultivation through use of technology. Project Hippocrates (an acronym of "High Performance Technology for Robot-Assisted Surgery") is an go to the trouble of of the Carnegie Mellon School delineate Computer Science and Shadyside Medical Soul, "to develop advanced planning, simulation, cope with execution technologies for the next period of computer-assisted surgical robots."^[81] Both ethics Canadian Hippocratic Registry and American Hippocratic Registry are organizations of physicians who uphold the principles of the virgin Hippocratic Oath as inviolable through dynamic social times.

Genealogy

Hippocrates's legendary genealogy fragments his paternal heritage directly to Asklepius and his maternal ancestry to Heracles.^[31] According to Tzetzes's Chiliades, the ahnentafel of Hippocrates II is:^[82]

1. Hippocrates II.
2. Heraclides
4. Hippocrates I.
8. Gnosidicus
16. Nebrus
32. Sostratus III.
64. Theodorus II.
128. Sostratus, II.
256. Thedorus
512. Cleomyttades
1024. Crisamis
2048. Dardanus
4096. Sostratus
8192. Hippolochus
16384. Podalirius
32768. Asklepius

See also

Notes

References